Rethinking the care economy: a path to women’s socioeconomic fulfillment? 

Invisible work: a burden that is stereotypically or traditionally feminine  

The care economy is defined as “the set of active tasks and responsibilities that meet the vital needs of others”.⁴ This encompasses not only medical care, but also non-medical care provided in the domestic or institutional setting (housework, grocery shopping, cooking, child or elder care, etc.). The following discussion focuses specifically on this second aspect of the care economy. 

The economy of care is linked to the notion of “invisible work”. Largely taken on by women, these activities are said to be invisible when they are neither recognized, declared nor remunerated, in opposition to the notion of salaried work.  

Gender equality still has a long way to go, especially within the family unit. When we look at the distribution of household tasks in a household, women spend an average of 3 hours a day on domestic and organizational tasks (planning family activities, meals, etc.).⁷ Although productive, these activities are carried out outside the economic market and therefore do not generate direct monetary value. Nevertheless, these activities do have a real economic and social added value. 

Feminist movements, but also the COVID-19 pandemic, have highlighted more than ever the socio-economic consequences for women of gender inequalities: precarious “frontline” jobs, the burden of family care, childcare, etc. In 2022, a study funded by Women and Gender Equality Canada highlighted: 

• The country’s true level of economic production, considering the value of invisible work ; 

• Gendered social inequalities, including wage gaps and the unequal distribution of care activities.  

Between 2015 and 2019, the economic value of unpaid household work in Canada was equivalent to 25.2% of Canada’s 2019 Gross Domestic Product.  

The care economy: a gendered system of violence 

“Care activities, whether paid or unpaid, are inherent to the human condition, for all human beings depend on the attention of others for their survival and development “⁵. Close family members are often the primary caregivers. Yet, according to the International Labour Organization (ILO), worldwide, women and girls perform almost 75% of unpaid care work and account for 2/3 of all care workers.  

Assigning these tasks to girls and women has serious consequences and limits their socio-economic prospects. Spending 3 hours a day on household chores can⁵ : 

• Limit access to education ; 

• Reduce the time devoted to studies ; 

• Hinder academic success ; 

• Hinder professional prospects ; 

• Limit access to qualified well-paid jobs ; 

• Prevent social and economic autonomy and independence.  

Although some care activities are recognized and remunerated in the formal economic system, these sectors remain undervalued, low-paid and often occupied by women. The gendered distribution of employment in Quebec in 2023^8;3 bears witness to this reality:  

• Health sector: 82.1%  

• Education, law, social, community and government services: 73.5%  

• Maintenance and cleaning sector: 57.9%³  

The persistence of gender segregation in the professions, as well as the over-representation of women in the invisible sector of activity, expose them to multiple forms of violence, such as the following (non-exhaustive list):  

• Physical violence: risks associated with contact with vulnerable, violent clienteles (young children, the elderly, the mentally or physically ill) ;    

• Social violence: social devaluation of these professions, as they do not require a high level of qualification and do not generate a high income ; 

• Economic violence: the precariousness of these jobs and their low pay accentuate the risk of economic dependence on partners or families. Financial dependence can be an obstacle to departure in cases of domestic violence.  

Vulnerability accentuated by the intersectionality of violence: the case of Indigenous women in Canada 

In Quebec, in 2021, 15% of the population were immigrants⁹, more than half of whom (51.3%) were women¹⁰. Immigrant women then represent 14.9% of the female population of Quebec¹⁰. It is therefore important to adopt an intersectional approach when analyzing the economics of care. Racialized, visible minorities and immigrant women are at greater risk of being exposed to situations of violence, due to their predominance in the care economy.  

In Canada, Indigenous and immigrant women experience a distinct reality on the job market, compared to Canadian-born non-Indigenous women¹. Several factors explain these inequalities²: 

• Colonization and systemic racism: Canada’s colonial legacy continues to have a profound impact on the socio-economic success of Indigenous peoples, and women in particular: 

• Historically limited access to education has resulted in lower levels of schooling and literacy ; 

• Inter- and intra-generational traumas impact overall health (mental, physical, social), influencing their socio-economic success. 

• Restrictive immigration status: certain immigration status or conditions limit access to skilled jobs : 

• In the case of economic immigration, it can be difficult to gain access to jobs that match skill levels, despite experience and qualifications ; 

• In the case of family reunification, visas such as “dependent spouses” restrict employment opportunities ; 

• Lack of recognition of foreign qualifications and experience is also a major obstacle. 

• Cultural differences:  

• Language barriers can hinder access to the job market ; 

• Gendered roles within the family, notably the unequal distribution of domestic responsibilities, can be an obstacle to the socio-economic emancipation of women and girls. 

We can thus observe a phenomenon of horizontal occupational segregation, i.e. a gendered concentration in certain professions. This distribution is not neutral: it is influenced and reinforced by people’s intersectional identity characteristics, such as their gender, ethnic origin, migratory status or indigenous background. 

Education : a path to change 

There are a number of avenues to explore and actions to be taken to break down these dynamics, starting with primary education or, failing that, upon arrival in Canada: 

• Training: curriculum reform via the Academic and Career Guidance Content (ACGC), and the Culture and Citizenship in Québec (CCQ) program helps to deconstruct gender barriers in access to education and employment from primary school onwards ; 

• Raising awareness: several organizations offer awareness-raising modules adapted to different school levels to encourage students to explore different training and career possibilities. The Women’s Y of Montreal’s Un Métier À Mon Image project is just one example ; 

• Support: community organizations provide support for newcomers and help them to obtain diploma equivalencies. The organization La Maison d’Haïti offers information and advice sessions to help in obtaining diploma equivalence ; 

• Networking: neighbourhood associations and community organizations offer free or low-cost activities to help you build a network and forge social and professional ties. For example, the Women’s Y of Montreal community center offers several activity sessions. The program is available on our website.  

Valuing the Care Economy as an Opportunity for Emancipation  

Rising standards of living and increasing life expectancy are continually multiplying demand and sectors of activity in the care sector. To initiate the valorization of the care economy on a global scale, the ILO has developed several tools to create a community of exchanges and best practices, and to make the care economy more visible, valorized and formally commercialized:  

• Awareness-raising videos on the socio-economic consequences for women of invisible care work ;  

• A global portal of initiatives and best practices aimed at making the care economy an incubator for women’s socio-economic development ; 

• An investment simulation tool for care policies, to highlight the socio-economic returns of this economy.  

There are already many concrete policies and initiatives in place to raise the profile and economic value of women’s activities in the care sector. In the long term, these measures aim to reduce inequalities in socio-economic opportunity and success between men and women. Here are just a few examples:  

• Sharing parental and family responsibilities:  

• Since 2006, Quebec has introduced paternity leave (from 3 to 5 weeks) and parental leave (from 25 to 32 weeks, to be shared between parents) ; 

• Since 2003, the Enfance Famille cooperative has been coordinating childcare offers and requests for all parents in the Montreal region. This initiative helps reduce the family burden often borne by mothers ; 

• Community organizations also offer services to help caregivers (CG), who are predominantly women (54%)⁶. The aim is to enable them to take advantage of time for themselves by taking part in activities and outings between CGs. 

• Women’s entrepreneurship : 

• Cooperatives founded by and for women in the care sector. For example, the Coop Autonomie Chez-soi supports CGs, who spend almost 12 hours a week providing care⁶. These cooperatives play a key role in ensuring women’s social, mental and economic well-being.  

• The First Nations of Quebec and Labrador Economic Development Commission has set up a program to support Indigenous women’s entrepreneurship. This program fosters women’s socio-economic independence by enabling them to combine entrepreneurship with the valorization of traditional roles and culture. Success stories (grocery stores, skincare products, beauty salon, clothing), as well as a network of aboriginal women entrepreneurs, are available via their website.  

• Political actions :  

• National Invisible Work Day: Since 2001, the Association Féministe d’Éducation et d’Action Sociale (AFEAS) has organized a national day every first Tuesday in April to raise awareness of the importance of unpaid work, the vast majority of which is performed by women. In 2024, in collaboration with other Canadian provinces, AFEAS launched a National Coalition for Invisible Work Equity. The organization’s goal is to raise public and political awareness of the importance of unpaid work, the majority of which is performed by women.  

• Feminist social strike: In 2023, the Table de concertation des groupes de femmes du Québec organized a strike to denounce institutional inaction and the persistence of inequalities, particularly those linked to invisible work.  

• Surveys, research and analysis: Funding research on invisible work helps to fuel debates in the public and political arena. Collective works such as Le Travail invisible help to make this reality better known and recognized.  

Conclusion 

Activities and products linked to the care economy must be recognized, measured and fully integrated into the formal economy. By institutionalizing this sector, we can promote women’s access to employment and lasting socio-economic stability. 

This implies a fair redistribution of care responsibilities, both through structuring political actions and through in-depth social transformation. A fairer division of tasks within the family, shared responsibility regardless of gender, and better recognition of parental roles by employers (fair parental leave, measures to support parenthood), are all necessary levers. Investing in care – physical, psychological and community – is not just about meeting needs: it’s about building a fairer society. 

To move towards true gender equality, it is urgent to recognize the close links between the care economy, the right to decent employment, social justice and sustainable development – and to give due recognition to the essential contributions made by women in these areas. 

Références bibliographiques  

1. Drolet, M et Mardare Amini. M. (2023). Études sur le genre et les identités croisées : Perspectives intersectionnelles sur l’écart salarial entre les genres au Canada. Femmes Égalité des genres Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-20-0002/452000022023002-fra.htm 

2. Fortin, N. et M. Huberman. 2002. « Occupational Gender Segregation and Women’s Wages in Canada: An Historical Perspective », Canadian Public Policy-Analyse de Politiques, vol. 28, n^o s1, p. 11 à 39. 

3. Gouvernement du Québec (2023). Explorer des métiers et des professions : Préposés/Préposées à l’entretien ménager et au nettoyage. https://www.quebec.ca/emploi/informer-metier-profession/explorer-metiers-professions/65310-preposes-preposees-a-lentretien-menager-et-au-nettoyage 

4. Noël-Hureaux, E. (2015). Le care : un concept professionnel aux limites humaines ? Recherche en soins infirmiers, 122(3), 7-17. https://doi.org/10.3917/rsi.122.0007. 

5. Organisation Internationale du Travail (2019). Prendre soin d’autrui : Un travail et des emplois pour l’avenir du travail décent. https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40dgreports/%40dcomm/%40publ/documents/publication/wcms_712833.pdf 

6. Statistique Canada (2018). Différences dans les caractéristiques des aidants et les modes de prestation de soins des Canadiens, 2018. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220114/dq220114c-fra.htm?utm_source=chatgpt.com 

7. Statistique Canada (2022). Estimation de la valeur économique du travail ménager non rémunéré au Canada, 2015 à 2019. Le Quotidien — Estimation de la valeur économique du travail ménager non rémunéré au Canada, 2015 à 2019 

8. Statistique Québec (2023). Emplois dans certaines catégories professionnelles https://statistique.quebec.ca/vitrine/egalite/dimensions-egalite/travail/emplois-certaines-categories-professionnelles?onglet=ensemble-de-la-population 

9. Statistique Québec (2021). Statut d’immigration. https://statistique.quebec.ca/vitrine/vieillissement/themes/population/statut-immigration 

10. Statistique Québec (2021). Statut d’immigration. https://statistique.quebec.ca/vitrine/egalite/dimensions-egalite/demographie/personnes-immigrantes